Martin J Ryan Bs Liberal Arts Oregon State University

Academic institution for further education

A university (from Latin universitas 'a whole') is an institution of higher (or third) teaching and enquiry which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines. Universities typically offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs.

The word academy is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly ways "community of teachers and scholars".^[1]

The first universities were created in Europe by Catholic Church monks.^[2] ^[three] ^[4] ^[5] ^[6] The University of Bologna (Università di Bologna), founded in 1088, is the start university in the sense of:

Beingness a loftier degree-awarding constitute.
Having independence from the ecclesiastic schools, although conducted by both clergy and not-clergy.
Using the word universitas (which was coined at its foundation).
Issuing secular and non-secular degrees: grammar, rhetoric, logic, theology, canon law, notarial constabulary.^[7] ^[8] ^[9] ^[10] ^[11]

History [edit]

Definition [edit]

The original Latin word universitas refers in general to "a number of persons associated into 1 torso, a lodge, company, community, club, corporation, etc".^[12] At the time of the emergence of urban boondocks life and medieval guilds, specialized "associations of students and teachers with collective legal rights usually guaranteed by charters issued by princes, prelates, or the towns in which they were located" came to be denominated by this general term. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members.^[thirteen]

In modern usage the word has come to mean "An institution of higher teaching offering tuition in mainly non-vocational subjects and typically having the power to confer degrees,"^[14] with the earlier emphasis on its corporate system considered as applying historically to Medieval universities.^[15]

The original Latin give-and-take referred to degree-awarding institutions of learning in Western and Central Europe, where this course of legal organisation was prevalent and from where the institution spread around the earth.^{[ citation needed ]}

Academic freedom [edit]

An important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the University of Bologna, which adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita,^[xvi] in 1158 or 1155,^[17] which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of teaching. Today this is claimed every bit the origin of "academic liberty".^[eighteen] This is at present widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988, 430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum,^[nineteen] marking the 900th anniversary of Bologna'south foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, drawing from all parts of the world.

Antecedents [edit]

Moroccan college-learning institution Al-Qarawiyin (founded in 859 A.D.) was transformed into a university nether the supervision of the ministry building of education in 1963.^[xx]

Scholars occasionally telephone call the University of al-Qarawiyyin (name given in 1963), founded as a mosque by Fatima al-Fihri in 859, a academy,^[21] ^[22] ^[23] ^[24] although Jacques Verger writes that this is done out of scholarly convenience.^[25] Several scholars consider that al-Qarawiyyin was founded^[26] ^[27] and run^[20] ^[28] ^[29] ^[30] ^[31] equally a madrasa until after World War II. They date the transformation of the madrasa of al-Qarawiyyin into a university to its modern reorganization in 1963.^[32] ^[33] ^[xx] In the wake of these reforms, al-Qarawiyyin was officially renamed "University of Al Quaraouiyine" two years later.^[32]

Some scholars argue that Al-Azhar University, founded in 970-972 AD and located in Cairo, Arab republic of egypt, is the oldest degree-granting university in the world and the second oldest university in the world.^[34]

Some scholars, including George Makdisi, accept argued that early medieval universities were influenced past the madrasas in Al-Andalus, the Emirate of Sicily, and the Middle East during the Crusades.^[35] ^[36] ^[37] Norman Daniel, all the same, views this argument as overstated.^[38] Roy Lowe and Yoshihito Yasuhara have recently drawn on the well-documented influences of scholarship from the Islamic world on the universities of Western Europe to call for a afterthought of the development of higher education, turning away from a concern with local institutional structures to a broader consideration within a global context.^[39]

Medieval Europe [edit]

The mod university is generally regarded equally a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian tradition.^[40] ^[41]

European college education took identify for hundreds of years in cathedral schools or monastic schools (scholae monasticae), in which monks and nuns taught classes; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the later university at many places dates back to the 6th century.^[42]

In Europe, young men proceeded to university when they had completed their study of the trivium–the preparatory arts of grammar, rhetoric and dialectic or logic–and the quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy.

The earliest universities were developed nether the custodianship of the Latin Church by papal bull equally studia generalia and perhaps from cathedral schools. Information technology is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception.^[43] Later they were as well founded past Kings (Academy of Naples Federico Ii, Charles Academy in Prague, Jagiellonian Academy in Kraków) or municipal administrations (Academy of Cologne, University of Erfurt). In the early medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, ordinarily when these schools were accounted to accept go primarily sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by The residence of a religious community.^[44] Pope Gregory Seven was critical in promoting and regulating the concept of modernistic university as his 1079 Papal Decree ordered the regulated establishment of cathedral schools that transformed themselves into the kickoff European universities.^[45]

The first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna (1088), the University of Paris (c.1150, later associated with the Sorbonne), and the Academy of Oxford (1167).

The University of Bologna began every bit a constabulary school instruction the ius gentium or Roman law of peoples which was in demand across Europe for those defending the correct of incipient nations against empire and church building. Bologna's special claim to Alma Mater Studiorum ^{[ clarification needed ]} is based on its autonomy, its awarding of degrees, and other structural arrangements, making it the oldest continuously operating institution^[17] independent of kings, emperors or whatever kind of direct religious authority.^[46] ^[47]

The conventional appointment of 1088, or 1087 according to some,^[48] records when Irnerius commences teaching Emperor Justinian's 6th-century codification of Roman constabulary, the Corpus Iuris Civilis, recently discovered at Pisa. Lay students arrived in the metropolis from many lands inbound into a contract to proceeds this knowledge, organising themselves into 'Nationes', divided betwixt that of the Cismontanes and that of the Ultramontanes. The students "had all the ability … and dominated the masters".^[49] ^[50]

All over Europe rulers and metropolis governments began to create universities to satisfy a European thirst for knowledge, and the belief that society would benefit from the scholarly expertise generated from these institutions. Princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to accost hard problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to this agreement of the possible utility of universities equally well as the revival of interest in cognition gained from ancient Greek texts.^[51]

The recovery of Aristotle'south works–more than than 3000 pages of information technology would eventually be translated–fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had already begun to emerge in the twelfth century. Some scholars believe that these works represented ane of the most important certificate discoveries in Western intellectual history.^[52] Richard Dales, for case, calls the discovery of Aristotle's works "a turning point in the history of Western thought."^[53] Later Aristotle re-emerged, a community of scholars, primarily communicating in Latin, accelerated the process and practice of attempting to reconcile the thoughts of Greek antiquity, and especially ideas related to understanding the natural earth, with those of the church. The efforts of this "scholasticism" were focused on applying Aristotelian logic and thoughts nearly natural processes to biblical passages and attempting to prove the viability of those passages through reason. This became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students.

The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the due south, although the northern (primarily Frg, France and Neat Great britain) and southern universities (primarily Italy) did take many elements in common. Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics; while Hippocrates, Galen, and Avicenna were used for medicine. Exterior of these commonalities, slap-up differences separated n and south, primarily in subject matter. Italian universities focused on law and medicine, while the northern universities focused on the arts and theology. At that place were distinct differences in the quality of pedagogy in these areas which were coinciding with their focus, so scholars would travel north or south based on their interests and ways. There was also a difference in the types of degrees awarded at these universities. English language, French and German universities usually awarded available's degrees, with the exception of degrees in theology, for which the doctorate was more common. Italian universities awarded primarily doctorates. The distinction can exist attributed to the intent of the degree holder later on graduation – in the north the focus tended to exist on acquiring teaching positions, while in the south students often went on to professional positions.^[54] The structure of northern universities tended to exist modeled afterward the system of faculty governance developed at the University of Paris. Southern universities tended to exist patterned after the educatee-controlled model begun at the University of Bologna.^[55] Among the southern universities, a further distinction has been noted between those of northern Italy, which followed the pattern of Bologna equally a "cocky-regulating, contained corporation of scholars" and those of southern Italy and Iberia, which were "founded past royal and imperial lease to serve the needs of regime."^[56]

Early modern universities [edit]

The University of St Andrews, founded in 1410, is Scotland'southward oldest university and one of the UK's all-time ranked universities.^[57] ^[58]

During the Early on Mod period (approximately tardily 15th century to 1800), the universities of Europe would meet a tremendous amount of growth, productivity and innovative research. At the end of the Center Ages, about 400 years later the starting time European university was founded, there were twenty-nine universities spread throughout Europe. In the 15th century, 20-eight new ones were created, with another eighteen added betwixt 1500 and 1625.^[59] This pace continued until by the finish of the 18th century at that place were approximately 143 universities in Europe, with the highest concentrations in the High german Empire (34), Italian countries (26), France (25), and Spain (23) – this was close to a 500% increase over the number of universities toward the finish of the Middle Ages. This number does non include the numerous universities that disappeared, or institutions that merged with other universities during this time.^[60] The identification of a university was not necessarily obvious during the Early Modern period, as the term is applied to a burgeoning number of institutions. In fact, the term "academy" was not always used to designate a higher education institution. In Mediterranean countries, the term studium generale was still ofttimes used, while "Academy" was mutual in Northern European countries.^[61]

The propagation of universities was not necessarily a steady progression, as the 17th century was rife with events that adversely affected university expansion. Many wars, and especially the Thirty Years' War, disrupted the university landscape throughout Europe at different times. War, plague, famine, regicide, and changes in religious power and structure often adversely affected the societies that provided support for universities. Internal strife inside the universities themselves, such as student brawling and absentee professors, acted to destabilize these institutions likewise. Universities were also reluctant to give up older curricula, and the continued reliance on the works of Aristotle defied contemporary advancements in science and the arts.^[62] This era was also affected by the rise of the nation-land. Equally universities increasingly came under land command, or formed nether the auspices of the state, the faculty governance model (begun by the University of Paris) became more and more prominent. Although the older student-controlled universities still existed, they slowly started to motility toward this structural arrangement. Command of universities still tended to be independent, although university leadership was increasingly appointed by the state.^[63]

Although the structural model provided by the Academy of Paris, where student members are controlled past kinesthesia "masters", provided a standard for universities, the awarding of this model took at least three unlike forms. In that location were universities that had a system of faculties whose educational activity addressed a very specific curriculum; this model tended to train specialists. In that location was a collegiate or tutorial model based on the organization at University of Oxford where teaching and organization was decentralized and knowledge was more of a generalist nature. There were also universities that combined these models, using the collegiate model only having a centralized organization.^[64]

Early Modern universities initially continued the curriculum and research of the Middle Ages: natural philosophy, logic, medicine, theology, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, police force, grammar and rhetoric. Aristotle was prevalent throughout the curriculum, while medicine as well depended on Galen and Arabic scholarship. The importance of humanism for changing this land-of-affairs cannot be underestimated.^[65] One time humanist professors joined the university kinesthesia, they began to transform the study of grammar and rhetoric through the studia humanitatis. Humanist professors focused on the ability of students to write and speak with distinction, to translate and interpret classical texts, and to alive honorable lives.^[66] Other scholars within the academy were affected by the humanist approaches to learning and their linguistic expertise in relation to aboriginal texts, as well equally the ideology that advocated the ultimate importance of those texts.^[67] Professors of medicine such as Niccolò Leoniceno, Thomas Linacre and William Cop were often trained in and taught from a humanist perspective as well every bit translated important ancient medical texts. The critical mindset imparted by humanism was imperative for changes in universities and scholarship. For instance, Andreas Vesalius was educated in a humanist fashion earlier producing a translation of Galen, whose ideas he verified through his own dissections. In constabulary, Andreas Alciatus infused the Corpus Juris with a humanist perspective, while Jacques Cujas humanist writings were paramount to his reputation as a jurist. Philipp Melanchthon cited the works of Erasmus every bit a highly influential guide for connecting theology back to original texts, which was of import for the reform at Protestant universities.^[68] Galileo Galilei, who taught at the Universities of Pisa and Padua, and Martin Luther, who taught at the Academy of Wittenberg (as did Melanchthon), also had humanist training. The task of the humanists was to slowly permeate the university; to increase the humanist presence in professorships and chairs, syllabi and textbooks so that published works would demonstrate the humanistic ideal of science and scholarship.^[69]

Although the initial focus of the humanist scholars in the university was the discovery, exposition and insertion of ancient texts and languages into the university, and the ideas of those texts into club generally, their influence was ultimately quite progressive. The emergence of classical texts brought new ideas and led to a more creative university climate (every bit the notable list of scholars in a higher place attests to). A focus on knowledge coming from cocky, from the human, has a direct implication for new forms of scholarship and pedagogy, and was the foundation for what is normally known as the humanities. This disposition toward noesis manifested in not only the translation and propagation of ancient texts, just also their adaptation and expansion. For example, Vesalius was imperative for advocating the apply of Galen, but he likewise invigorated this text with experimentation, disagreements and further enquiry.^[70] The propagation of these texts, especially inside the universities, was greatly aided by the emergence of the printing press and the beginning of the employ of the vernacular, which immune for the printing of relatively big texts at reasonable prices.^[71]

Examining the influence of humanism on scholars in medicine, mathematics, astronomy and physics may suggest that humanism and universities were a strong impetus for the scientific revolution. Although the connection between humanism and the scientific discovery may very well have begun within the confines of the academy, the connexion has been ordinarily perceived as having been severed by the changing nature of science during the Scientific Revolution. Historians such as Richard S. Westfall take argued that the overt traditionalism of universities inhibited attempts to re-conceptualize nature and knowledge and caused an enduring tension between universities and scientists.^[72] This resistance to changes in science may have been a pregnant cistron in driving many scientists away from the university and toward private benefactors, usually in princely courts, and associations with newly forming scientific societies.^[73]

Other historians find incongruity in the proposition that the very place where the vast number of the scholars that influenced the scientific revolution received their pedagogy should also be the identify that inhibits their research and the advancement of science. In fact, more than lxxx% of the European scientists betwixt 1450 and 1650 included in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were academy trained, of which approximately 45% held university posts.^[74] Information technology was the case that the academic foundations remaining from the Eye Ages were stable, and they did provide for an environment that fostered considerable growth and development. At that place was considerable reluctance on the part of universities to relinquish the symmetry and comprehensiveness provided by the Aristotelian system, which was effective equally a coherent arrangement for understanding and interpreting the globe. Nevertheless, academy professors still utilized some autonomy, at to the lowest degree in the sciences, to cull epistemological foundations and methods. For case, Melanchthon and his disciples at University of Wittenberg were instrumental for integrating Copernican mathematical constructs into astronomical debate and education.^[75] Some other case was the curt-lived only fairly rapid adoption of Cartesian epistemology and methodology in European universities, and the debates surrounding that adoption, which led to more than mechanistic approaches to scientific problems likewise as demonstrated an openness to change. In that location are many examples which confute the usually perceived intransigence of universities.^[76] Although universities may have been ho-hum to accept new sciences and methodologies as they emerged, when they did accept new ideas it helped to convey legitimacy and respectability, and supported the scientific changes through providing a stable environment for instruction and cloth resources.^[77]

Regardless of the style the tension betwixt universities, individual scientists, and the scientific revolution itself is perceived, there was a discernible impact on the fashion that university education was constructed. Aristotelian epistemology provided a coherent framework non only for knowledge and knowledge structure, simply besides for the training of scholars within the higher education setting. The creation of new scientific constructs during the scientific revolution, and the epistemological challenges that were inherent within this cosmos, initiated the thought of both the autonomy of science and the bureaucracy of the disciplines. Instead of entering college pedagogy to go a "general scholar" immersed in condign practiced in the unabridged curriculum, there emerged a blazon of scholar that put science first and viewed information technology every bit a vocation in itself. The divergence between those focused on science and those yet entrenched in the idea of a general scholar exacerbated the epistemological tensions that were already offset to sally.^[78]

The epistemological tensions between scientists and universities were also heightened past the economic realities of enquiry during this fourth dimension, as individual scientists, associations and universities were vying for limited resources. There was also competition from the formation of new colleges funded by private benefactors and designed to provide gratuitous education to the public, or established by local governments to provide a knowledge-hungry populace with an alternative to traditional universities.^[79] Even when universities supported new scientific endeavors, and the university provided foundational preparation and dominance for the research and conclusions, they could not compete with the resources available through private benefactors.^[80]

By the stop of the early on modern catamenia, the structure and orientation of college education had changed in ways that are eminently recognizable for the modern context. Aristotle was no longer a strength providing the epistemological and methodological focus for universities and a more mechanistic orientation was emerging. The hierarchical place of theological noesis had for the most office been displaced and the humanities had go a fixture, and a new openness was beginning to take concord in the construction and dissemination of knowledge that were to go imperative for the germination of the modern state.

Modern universities [edit]

By the 18th century, universities published their own enquiry journals and by the 19th century, the High german and the French university models had arisen. The German, or Humboldtian model, was conceived by Wilhelm von Humboldt and based on Friedrich Schleiermacher'due south liberal ideas pertaining to the importance of liberty, seminars, and laboratories in universities.^{[ citation needed ]} The French academy model involved strict discipline and command over every aspect of the academy.

Until the 19th century, organized religion played a significant role in university curriculum; however, the role of faith in research universities decreased during that century. By the end of the 19th century, the German academy model had spread around the globe. Universities concentrated on science in the 19th and 20th centuries and became increasingly attainable to the masses. In the United States, the Johns Hopkins University was the commencement to adopt the (High german) inquiry university model and pioneered the adoption of that model past nearly American universities. When Johns Hopkins was founded in 1876, "almost the entire faculty had studied in Federal republic of germany."^[81] In Britain, the motion from Industrial Revolution to modernity saw the arrival of new borough universities with an accent on science and engineering, a movement initiated in 1960 by Sir Keith Murray (chairman of the Academy Grants Commission) and Sir Samuel Curran, with the formation of the University of Strathclyde.^[82] The British also established universities worldwide, and higher education became available to the masses non only in Europe.

In 1963, the Robbins Report on universities in the United Kingdom concluded that such institutions should have four principal "objectives essential to any properly balanced system: instruction in skills; the promotion of the general powers of the mind so as to produce not mere specialists but rather cultivated men and women; to maintain research in balance with educational activity, since instruction should non be separated from the advocacy of learning and the search for truth; and to transmit a common culture and common standards of citizenship."^[83]

In the early on 21st century, concerns were raised over the increasing managerialisation and standardisation of universities worldwide. Neo-liberal management models have in this sense been critiqued for creating "corporate universities (where) ability is transferred from kinesthesia to managers, economic justifications boss, and the familiar 'bottom line' eclipses pedagogical or intellectual concerns".^[84] Academics' agreement of time, pedagogical pleasure, vocation, and collegiality have been cited equally possible ways of alleviating such bug.^[85]

National universities [edit]

A national university is generally a university created or run by a national state simply at the aforementioned time represents a state autonomic establishment which functions as a completely independent body within of the same state. Some national universities are closely associated with national cultural, religious or political aspirations, for instance the National Academy of Ireland, which formed partly from the Catholic Academy of Ireland which was created almost immediately and specifically in answer to the non-denominational universities which had been fix in Ireland in 1850. In the years leading upwardly to the Easter Ascension, and in no small-scale function a result of the Gaelic Romantic revivalists, the NUI collected a large amount of information on the Irish language and Irish culture.^{[ citation needed ]} Reforms in Argentina were the outcome of the University Revolution of 1918 and its posterior reforms by incorporating values that sought for a more equal and laic^{[ further caption needed ]} college education system.

Intergovernmental universities [edit]

Universities created by bilateral or multilateral treaties between states are intergovernmental. An example is the Academy of European Law, which offers training in European law to lawyers, judges, barristers, solicitors, in-business firm counsel and academics. EUCLID (Pôle Universitaire Euclide, Euclid University) is chartered as a university and umbrella arrangement dedicated to sustainable evolution in signatory countries, and the United Nations University engages in efforts to resolve the pressing global problems that are of business organisation to the United nations, its peoples and member states. The European Academy Institute, a post-graduate academy specialized in the social sciences, is officially an intergovernmental organization, gear up past the member states of the European Wedlock.

Organization [edit]

Although each institution is organized differently, nearly all universities have a board of trustees; a president, chancellor, or rector; at to the lowest degree one vice president, vice-chancellor, or vice-rector; and deans of various divisions. Universities are by and large divided into a number of academic departments, schools or faculties. Public academy systems are ruled over by government-run college education boards^{[ citation needed ]}. They review financial requests and budget proposals and then allocate funds for each university in the arrangement. They also approve new programs of educational activity and cancel or make changes in existing programs. In add-on, they plan for the further coordinated growth and development of the various institutions of higher didactics in the state or country. Yet, many public universities in the world accept a considerable degree of fiscal, research and pedagogical autonomy. Private universities are privately funded and more often than not have broader independence from land policies. Even so, they may have less independence from business corporations depending on the source of their finances.

Effectually the earth [edit]

The funding and organisation of universities varies widely betwixt different countries around the globe. In some countries universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come up from donors or from fees which students attending the university must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend university in their local town, while in other countries universities concenter students from all over the world, and may provide university accommodation for their students.^[86]

Classification [edit]

The definition of a university varies widely, even inside some countries. Where there is clarification, it is usually set up by a authorities agency. For example:

In Australia, the 3rd Education Quality and Standards Bureau (TEQSA) is Australia's independent national regulator of the higher education sector. Students rights within university are also protected by the Didactics Services for Overseas Students Act (ESOS).

In the United States there is no nationally standardized definition for the term university, although the term has traditionally been used to designate inquiry institutions and was one time reserved for doctorate-granting research institutions. Some states, such as Massachusetts, will only grant a school "university condition" if it grants at to the lowest degree two doctoral degrees.^[87]

In the United Kingdom, the Privy Council is responsible for approving the use of the word academy in the name of an institution, under the terms of the Farther and Higher Education Act 1992.^[88]

In Republic of india, a new designation deemed universities has been created for institutions of college education that are non universities, simply work at a very high standard in a specific area of written report ("An Institution of Higher Education, other than universities, working at a very high standard in specific expanse of study, can exist alleged by the Central Government on the advice of the University Grants Committee equally an Institution 'Deemed-to-be-university'"). Institutions that are 'accounted-to-exist-university' relish the academic status and the privileges of a university.^[89] Through this provision many schools that are commercial in nature and have been established just to exploit the demand for college education have sprung up.^[90]

In Canada, college generally refers to a two-year, not-caste-granting institution, while university connotes a 4-yr, degree-granting institution. Universities may be sub-classified (equally in the Macleans rankings) into large inquiry universities with many PhD-granting programs and medical schools (for example, McGill University); "comprehensive" universities that have some PhDs but are not geared toward inquiry (such every bit Waterloo); and smaller, primarily undergraduate universities (such every bit St. Francis Xavier).

In Germany, universities are institutions of higher education which have the power to confer bachelor, principal and PhD degrees. They are explicitly recognised as such past police force and cannot be founded without government blessing. The term Universität (i.east. the German language term for university) is protected by police force and whatever use without official approval is a criminal offense. Most of them are public institutions, though a few private universities exist. Such universities are e'er inquiry universities. Apart from these universities, Deutschland has other institutions of higher teaching (Hochschule, Fachhochschule). Fachhochschule means a college pedagogy institution which is like to the former polytechnics in the British instruction system, the English term used for these German institutions is unremarkably 'academy of applied sciences'. They tin confer main's degrees but no PhDs. They are similar to the model of educational activity universities with less inquiry and the research undertaken being highly applied. Hochschule can refer to various kinds of institutions, often specialised in a certain field (e.g. music, fine arts, business). They might or might not have the power to award PhD degrees, depending on the respective government legislation. If they award PhD degrees, their rank is considered equivalent to that of universities proper (Universität), if not, their rank is equivalent to universities of applied sciences.

Colloquial usage [edit]

Colloquially, the term university may be used to describe a phase in one's life: "When I was at academy..." (in the Us and Ireland, higher is frequently used instead: "When I was in college..."). In Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom, Nigeria, kingdom of the netherlands, Italy, Spain and the German-speaking countries, university is frequently contracted to uni. In Ghana, New Zealand, Bangladesh and in South Africa it is sometimes called "varsity" (although this has go uncommon in New Zealand in recent years). "Varsity" was also common usage in the UK in the 19th century.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Cost [edit]

In many countries, students are required to pay tuition fees. Many students wait to get 'student grants' to cover the toll of university. In 2016, the average outstanding educatee loan balance per borrower in the United States was US$30,000.^[91] In many U.S. states, costs are anticipated to rise for students as a upshot of decreased land funding given to public universities.^[92] Many universities in the United States offer students the opportunity to apply for financial scholarships to aid pay for tuition based on academic achievement.

At that place are several major exceptions on tuition fees. In many European countries, information technology is possible to study without tuition fees. Public universities in Nordic countries were entirely without tuition fees until around 2005. Kingdom of denmark, Sweden and Finland so moved to put in place tuition fees for foreign students. Citizens of EU and EEA fellow member states and citizens from Switzerland remain exempted from tuition fees, and the amounts of public grants granted to promising foreign students were increased to offset some of the bear on.^[93] The state of affairs in Deutschland is similar; public universities unremarkably do not charge tuition fees autonomously from a small administrative fee. For degrees of a postgraduate professional level sometimes tuition fees are levied. Private universities, still, about always charge tuition fees.

See likewise [edit]

Alternative university
Alumni
Ancient higher-learning institutions
Cosmic university
College and university rankings
Corporate academy
International university
State-grant university
Liberal arts college
List of bookish disciplines
Lists of universities and colleges
Pontifical university
Enquiry university
Schoolhouse and academy in literature
Science tourism
UnCollege
University student memory
Academy system
Urban university

References [edit]

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^ Den Heijer, Alexandra (2011). Managing the University Campus: Information to Support Existent Estate Decisions. Academische Uitgeverij Eburon. ISBN9789059724877. Many of the medieval universities in Western Europe were born under the aegis of the Catholic Church building, commonly as cathedral schools or by papal balderdash as Studia Generali.
^ A. Lamport, Mark (2015). Encyclopedia of Christian Education. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 484. ISBN9780810884939. All the great European universities-Oxford, to Paris, to Cologne, to Prague, to Bologna—were established with close ties to the Church.
^ B M. Leonard, Thomas (2013). Encyclopedia of the Developing World. Routledge. p. 1369. ISBN9781135205157. Europe established schools in association with their cathedrals to educate priests, and from these emerged eventually the first universities of Europe, which began forming in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
^ Gavroglu, Kostas (2015). Sciences in the Universities of Europe, Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: Academic Landscapes. Springer. p. 302. ISBN9789401796361.
^ GA. Dawson, Patricia (2015). First Peoples of the Americas and the European Historic period of Exploration. Cavendish Square Publishing. p. 103. ISBN9781502606853.
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^ Top Universities Archived 17 Jan 2009 at the Wayback Machine World Academy Rankings Retrieved 6 January 2010
^ Paul L. Gaston (2010). The Challenge of Bologna. p. 18. ISBN978-i-57922-366-3. Archived from the original on ten March 2021. Retrieved 7 July 2016.
^ Chase Janin: "The university in medieval life, 1179–1499", McFarland, 2008, ISBN 0-7864-3462-vii, p. 55f.
^ de Ridder-Symoens, Hilde: A History of the University in Europe: Book i, Universities in the Centre Ages Archived 13 December 2021 at the Wayback Car, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-521-36105-2, pp. 47–55
^ Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles (1966) [1879], A Latin Dictionary, Oxford: Clarendon Press
^ Marcia L. Colish, Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition, 400-1400, (New Haven: Yale Univ. Pr., 1997), p. 267.
^ "academy, north.", OED Online (3rd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, archived from the original on 30 April 2021, retrieved 27 August 2013
^ "academy, n.", OED Online (3rd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Printing, 2010, archived from the original on 30 Apr 2021, retrieved 27 August 2013, ...In the Centre Ages: a body of teachers and students engaged in giving and receiving instruction in the higher branches of written report … and regarded every bit a scholastic guild or corporation. Compare "University", Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.), Oxford: Oxford Academy Press, 1989, The whole body of teachers and scholars engaged, at a detail place, in giving and receiving instruction in the higher branches of learning; such persons associated together as a society or corporate body, with definite organization and acknowledged powers and privileges (esp. that of conferring degrees), and forming an institution for the promotion of education in the higher or more important branches of learning….
^ Malagola, C. (1888), Statuti delle Università e dei Collegi dello Studio Bolognese. Bologna: Zanichelli.
^ ^a ^b Rüegg, W. (2003). "Chapter 1: Themes". In De Ridder-Symoens, H. (ed.). A History of the University in Europe. Vol. ane. Cambridge Academy Press. pp. iv–34. ISBN0-521-54113-ane.
^ Watson, P. (2005), Ideas. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, page 373
^ "Magna Charta delle Università Europee". .unibo.it. Archived from the original on 15 November 2010. Retrieved 28 May 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c Belhachmi, Zakia: "Gender, Teaching, and Feminist Noesis in al-Maghrib (N Africa) – 1950–70", Journal of Heart Eastern and North African Intellectual and Cultural Studies, Vol. 2–iii, 2003, pp. 55–82 (65):

The Adjustments of Original Institutions of the Higher Learning: the Madrasah. Significantly, the institutional adjustments of the madrasahs affected both the structure and the content of these institutions. In terms of structure, the adjustments were twofold: the reorganization of the available original madaris and the creation of new institutions. This resulted in 2 different types of Islamic teaching institutions in al-Maghrib. The first type was derived from the fusion of onetime madaris with new universities. For example, Morocco transformed Al-Qarawiyin (859 A.D.) into a university under the supervision of the ministry building of educational activity in 1963.
^ Verger, Jacques: "Patterns", in: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (ed.): A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Eye Ages, Cambridge University Printing, 2003, ISBN 978-0-521-54113-viii, pp. 35–76 (35)
^ Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 328. ISBN978-0-1951-2559-7.
^ Joseph, S, and Najmabadi, A. Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures: Economics, didactics, mobility, and space. Brill, 2003, p. 314.
^ Swartley, Keith. Encountering the Earth of Islam. Authentic, 2005, p. 74.
^ A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press, 2003, 35
^ Petersen, Andrew: Lexicon of Islamic Architecture, Routledge, 1996, ISBN 978-0-415-06084-4, p. 87 (entry "Fez"):

The Quaraouiyine Mosque, founded in 859, is the most famous mosque of Morocco and attracted continuous investment by Muslim rulers.
^ Lulat, Y. G.-M.: A History Of African Higher Teaching From Antiquity To The Nowadays: A Critical Synthesis Studies in Higher Pedagogy, Greenwood Publishing Grouping, 2005, ISBN 978-0-313-32061-iii, p. 70:

As for the nature of its curriculum, it was typical of other major madrasahs such as al-Azhar and Al Quaraouiyine, though many of the texts used at the institution came from Muslim Spain...Al Quaraouiyine began its life as a modest mosque constructed in 859 C.Due east. by means of an endowment bequeathed by a wealthy woman of much piety, Fatima bint Muhammed al-Fahri.
^ Shillington, Kevin: Encyclopedia of African History, Vol. 2, Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005, ISBN 978-1-57958-245-6, p. 1025:

Higher teaching has always been an integral part of Morocco, going dorsum to the ninth century when the Karaouine Mosque was established. The madrasa, known today as Al Qayrawaniyan University, became part of the state university system in 1947.

They consider institutions like al-Qarawiyyin to be college education colleges of Islamic police where other subjects were just of secondary importance.
^ Pedersen, J.; Rahman, Munibur; Hillenbrand, R.: "Madrasa", in Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2d edition, Brill, 2010:

Madrasa, in modern usage, the name of an institution of learning where the Islamic sciences are taught, i.east. a college for college studies, as opposed to an elementary school of traditional type (kuttab); in medieval usage, essentially a college of law in which the other Islamic sciences, including literary and philosophical ones, were coincident subjects only.
^ Meri, Josef W. (ed.): Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, A–G, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-96691-7, p. 457 (entry "madrasa"):

A madrasa is a higher of Islamic law. The madrasa was an educational institution in which Islamic law (fiqh) was taught co-ordinate to 1 or more Sunni rites: Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanafi, or Hanbali. It was supported by an endowment or charitable trust (waqf) that provided for at to the lowest degree one chair for one professor of law, income for other kinesthesia or staff, scholarships for students, and funds for the maintenance of the edifice. Madrasas contained lodgings for the professor and some of his students. Subjects other than law were frequently taught in madrasas, and even Sufi seances were held in them, just there could be no madrasa without constabulary as technically the major subject.
^ Makdisi, George: "Madrasa and University in the Center Ages", Studia Islamica, No. 32 (1970), pp. 255–264 (255f.):

In studying an institution which is foreign and remote in point of fourth dimension, as is the example of the medieval madrasa, one runs the double risk of attributing to it characteristics borrowed from 1'southward own institutions and i'due south own times. Thus gratuitous transfers may be made from 1 culture to the other, and the time factor may be ignored or dismissed every bit being without significance. One cannot therefore be too careful in attempting a comparative report of these ii institutions: the madrasa and the academy. Just in spite of the pitfalls inherent in such a study, admitting sketchy, the results which may be obtained are well worth the risks involved. In any instance, one cannot avoid making comparisons when certain unwarranted statements have already been made and seem to be currently accepted without question. The virtually unwarranted of these statements is the ane which makes of the "madrasa" a "academy".
^ ^a ^b Lulat, Y. G.-M.: A History Of African College Didactics From Antiquity To The Present: A Disquisitional Synthesis, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005, ISBN 978-0-313-32061-3, pp. 154–157
^ Park, Thomas K.; Boum, Aomar: Historical Dictionary of Morocco, 2nd ed., Scarecrow Printing, 2006, ISBN 978-0-8108-5341-6, p. 348

al-qarawiyin is the oldest academy in Morocco. It was founded as a mosque in Fès in the centre of the 9th century. It has been a destination for students and scholars of Islamic sciences and Standard arabic studies throughout the history of Kingdom of morocco. There were also other religious schools like the madras of ibn yusuf and other schools in the sus. This system of basic pedagogy called al-ta'lim al-aSil was funded past the sultans of Morocco and many famous traditional families. After independence, al-qarawiyin maintained its reputation, but it seemed important to transform it into a university that would prepare graduates for a modernistic state while maintaining an emphasis on Islamic studies. Hence, al-qarawiyin university was founded in February 1963 and, while the dean's residence was kept in Fès, the new university initially had four colleges located in major regions of the state known for their religious influences and madrasas. These colleges were kuliyat al-shari's in Fès, kuliyat uSul al-din in Tétouan, kuliyat al-lugha al-'arabiya in Marrakech (all founded in 1963), and kuliyat al-shari'a in Ait Melloul near Agadir, which was founded in 1979.
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External links [edit]

Wikiversity has learning resources nearly University

"Universities". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
University at Curlie

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University